TY - JOUR

T1 - 3D printing of recycled materials for sustainable construction: A comprehensive economic and life cycle assessment

AU - Raza, Muhammad Huzaifa

AU - Kravchenko, Ekaterina

AU - Besklubova, Svetlana

AU - Lazorenko, Georgy

AU - Markelov, Maxim

AU - Kasprzhitskii, Anton

AU - Zhong, Ray Y.

N1 - This work was supported by Guangdong Special Support Talent Program—Innovation and Entrepreneurship Leading Team (2019BT02S593), RGC Research Impact Fund (R7036-22), RGC Theme-based Research Scheme (T32-707-22-N), RGC GRF project (17202124), Innovation and Technology Fund (ITF) (ITT/024/24LP) and Public Policy Research Funding Scheme (PPRFS) (2024.A8.154.24D). This work was also supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation (grant No. FSUS-2024-0027).

PY - 2025/11

Y1 - 2025/11

N2 - The demand for sustainable materials and technologies has risen due to the construction sector's substantial impact on the ecosystem, natural resources and human health. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the sustainability potential of recycled materials for the construction 3D printing (3DP) process. Mortar mixtures are designed using recycled binder materials (fly ash and blast furnace slag) and aggregate materials (waste concrete-based recycled fine aggregate (RFA)) for the 3D printing process. The adequacy of different geopolymer mixtures for the printing process is assessed through the open time, slump and spread diameter. The results showed that geopolymer mixtures containing RFA offered adequate fresh properties and more dimensional stability for the 3D printing process. The compression testing of the RFA-based geopolymers (along with different testing orientations) also yields better strength than the natural fine aggregate (NFA) in 3D printing. Apart from lab-scale experimentation, a case study of 3D printed and casted walls (using NFA and RFA based geopolymer mixtures) has been considered for comprehensive economic and life cycle analysis (LCA). The results showed that the 3D printed wall using RFA offered a lower burden on the ecosystem, natural resources, and human health; moreover, the lowest cost was observed in the case of the 3D printed wall containing RFA. The higher overall environmental and economic impact of casted wall was primarily due to the usage of plywood formwork. Sensitivity analysis showed that reusing formwork up to 10 times can potentially reduce economic and ecological burdens, depending on construction complexity, but still, traditional construction's overall burden remains higher than 3D printing. As 3D printing technology matures and economies of scale are realized, 3D printing is expected to reduce costs and environmental impacts further.

AB - The demand for sustainable materials and technologies has risen due to the construction sector's substantial impact on the ecosystem, natural resources and human health. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the sustainability potential of recycled materials for the construction 3D printing (3DP) process. Mortar mixtures are designed using recycled binder materials (fly ash and blast furnace slag) and aggregate materials (waste concrete-based recycled fine aggregate (RFA)) for the 3D printing process. The adequacy of different geopolymer mixtures for the printing process is assessed through the open time, slump and spread diameter. The results showed that geopolymer mixtures containing RFA offered adequate fresh properties and more dimensional stability for the 3D printing process. The compression testing of the RFA-based geopolymers (along with different testing orientations) also yields better strength than the natural fine aggregate (NFA) in 3D printing. Apart from lab-scale experimentation, a case study of 3D printed and casted walls (using NFA and RFA based geopolymer mixtures) has been considered for comprehensive economic and life cycle analysis (LCA). The results showed that the 3D printed wall using RFA offered a lower burden on the ecosystem, natural resources, and human health; moreover, the lowest cost was observed in the case of the 3D printed wall containing RFA. The higher overall environmental and economic impact of casted wall was primarily due to the usage of plywood formwork. Sensitivity analysis showed that reusing formwork up to 10 times can potentially reduce economic and ecological burdens, depending on construction complexity, but still, traditional construction's overall burden remains higher than 3D printing. As 3D printing technology matures and economies of scale are realized, 3D printing is expected to reduce costs and environmental impacts further.

KW - 3D printing

KW - Construction

KW - Geopolymers

KW - Life cycle analysis

KW - Recycled aggregate

KW - Waste concrete

UR - https://www.mendeley.com/catalogue/3a0111ed-21d1-386c-b8cf-17816798cd68/

UR - https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?partnerID=HzOxMe3b&scp=105009744857&origin=inward

U2 - 10.1016/j.rser.2025.116059

DO - 10.1016/j.rser.2025.116059

M3 - Article

VL - 223

JO - Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

JF - Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

SN - 1364-0321

M1 - 116059

ER -